F/A-18 Hornet Papercraft

F/A-18 Hornet Papercraft AMERYKANSKI SAMOLOT WIELOZADANIOWY F/A-18 Hornet Papercraft McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet

The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F/A-18 Hornet is a twin-engine supersonic, all-weather carrier-capable multirole combat jet, designed as both a fighter and attack aircraft (F/A designation for Fighter/Attack). Designed by McDonnell Douglas and Northrop, the F/A-18 was derived from the latter's YF-17 in the 1970s for use by the United States Navy and Marine Corps. The Hornet is also used by the air forces of several other nations. The U.S. Navy's Flight Demonstration Squadron, the Blue Angels, has used the Hornet since 1986.

The F/A-18 has a top speed of Mach 1.8 (1,034 knots, 1,190 mph or 1,915 km/h at 40,000 ft or 12,190 m). It can carry a wide variety of bombs and missiles, including air-to-air and air-to-ground, supplemented by the 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon. It is powered by two General Electric F404 turbofan engines, which give the aircraft a high thrust-to-weight ratio. The F/A-18 has excellent aerodynamic characteristics, primarily attributed to its leading edge extensions (LEX). The fighter's primary missions are fighter escort, fleet air defense, Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD), air interdiction, close air support and aerial reconnaissance. Its versatility and reliability have proven it to be a valuable carrier asset, though it has been criticized for its lack of range and payload compared to its earlier contemporaries, such as the Grumman F-14 Tomcat in the fighter and strike fighter role, and the Grumman A-6 Intruder and LTV A-7 Corsair II in the attack role.

The Hornet saw its first combat action in 1986 during the 1986 United States bombing of Libya and subsequently participated in 1991 Gulf War and 2003 Iraq War. The F/A-18 Hornet provided the baseline design for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, a larger, evolutionary redesign of the F/A-18.

PZL-37 Los

The PZL.37 Łoś (English: elk) was a Polish twin-engine medium bomber, used in the defense of Poland against the Nazi German Invasion in 1939. It is sometimes^[1] known as "PZL P-37" or "PZL P.37", but the letter "P" was generally reserved for fighters of Zygmunt Pulawski's design (such as the PZL P.11). The correct designation should be PZL.37.

PZL.37 Łoś
PZL.37Abis Łoś
Role	Bomber
Manufacturer	PZL
First flight	13 December 1936
Introduction	1938
Retired	1944 (Romanian Air Force)
Primary users	Polish Air Force Romanian Air Force Luftwaffe
Produced	1938 - 1939
Number built	over 120
Variants	PZL.49 Miś

Design and development

The PZL.37 was designed in the mid-1930s at the PZL factory in Warsaw by Jerzy Dąbrowski.
The first PZL.37/I prototype, fitted with a single vertical stabilizer, flew on 13 December 1936. The second prototype PZL.37/II, with twin vertical stabilizers and other improvements, was accepted for production. The first 10 serial aircraft were produced in 1938 as the PZL.37A variant with a single vertical stabilizer, however. The next 19 interim aircraft were built as PZL.37A bis, with a twin tail. They all were powered by Bristol Pegasus XII B radial engines produced in Poland under licence.

PZL.37 Łoś - the second prototype

The main production variant, the PZL.37B (or: Łoś II), was fitted with the twin tail and newer Pegasus XX engines. Production of PZL.37B for the Polish Air Force started in autumn 1938. During the initial period of PZL.37 service, 2 prototypes and 6 serial planes, were lost in crashes caused by technical problems, mostly with rudders. After some structural changes, the PZL.37B became a fully reliable aircraft. By the outbreak of World War II, about 92 PZL.37s had been produced and given to the Air Force, and a further 31 were in different phases of production.
Before the war, the PZL.37B Łoś was one of the world's most modern bombers. It was able to carry a heavier bombload than similar aircraft, for example the Vickers Wellington, though the size of the bombs was limited. Smaller than most contemporary medium bombers, it was relatively fast and easy to handle. Thanks to a landing gear with double wheels it could operate from rough fields or meadows. Typically for the late 1930s, its defensive armament consisted of only 3 machine guns, which proved too weak against enemy fighters.
Starting with a presentation at a salon in Belgrade in June 1938 and in Paris in November, the PZL.37 met with a huge interest. For export purposes, new variants were developed: the PZL.37C with Gnome-Rhone 14N-0/1 engines of 985 cv (971 BHP, 724 kW), maximum speed 445 km/h and the PZL.37D with 14N-20/21 of 1,065 cv (1,050 BHP, 783 kW), maximum speed 460 km/h. In 1939, 20 PZL.37Cs were ordered by Yugoslavia, 12 by Bulgaria, 30 PZL.37Ds and license by Romania and 10, raw materials and parts for next 25 and license by Turkey and, finally, 12 aircraft for Greece.^[2] Belgian company Renard received permission for license production 20-50 aircraft for Republican Spain but resigned in 1939. Also Denmark, Estonia, Finland and Iran were negotiating. The Polish military weren't allowed a deal with Iran due to "lack of production abilities".^[2] The outbreak of the war prevented the production of these aircraft. At that time, PZL developed the next variant for the Polish airforce, the PZL.49 Miś, but this was not completed before the war. Having slightly bigger dimensions, Miś ("Bear") was to be fitted with Bristol Hercules II engines of 1,350 BHP (1,370 cv, 1,007 kW), maximum speed 520 km/h and an upper turret.

Technical design

The aircraft was conventional in layout, all metal, metal-covered, with low-set wings and a twin tail. Originally a popular profile designed by Ryszard Bartel (also used in many other successful Polish airframes incl. PZL P.11^[1]) was planned for the aircraft; the need to store bombs inside wings forced modifications. Some publications claim the resulting profile displayed laminar-flow properties (one of the first in the world), but this is disputed - its shape which resembled laminar flow wings developed in later years, but this was largely fortuitous, and at any rate achieving the laminar flow regime would have required additional construction features (most importantly extremely smooth wings shaped with extreme precision)^[3] which the aircraft simply lacked. However, the profile did display lower drag than expected and the first A version had maximal speed 10% higher than the originally planned 360 km/h.^[1] The modified profile was viewed as highly successful and was later re-used for other projects (sometimes in further modified form; e.g. PZL.46 Sum, PZL.49 Miś, PZL.50).
The aircraft was quite small for its bomb load and range; it was allowed in part by a lift-generating, airfoil-shaped fuselage, which was another then-unusual feature (previously used e.g. on PZL.26 sports plane). It was much shorter and had smaller wings than many German and French counterparts; it was slightly larger than the Lockheed Model 10 Electra Amelia Earhart used. The crew consisted of four: pilot, commander-bombardier, radio operator and a rear gunner. The bombardier was accommodated in the glazed nose, with a forward machine gun. The radio operator sat inside the fuselage, above the bomb bay, and he also operated an underbelly rear machine gun. The main undercarriage retracted into the engine nacelles. The undercarriage was double-wheeled, with an independent suspension for each wheel. The plane was powered by two Bristol Pegasus radial engines. The PZL.37A had Pegasus XII B engines (normal power: 860 BHP (873 cv, 642 kW), maximum: 940 BHP (953 cv, 701 kW)), the PZL.37B had Pegasus XX engines (normal power: 905 HP (918 cv, 675 kW), maximum: 970 BHP (984 cv, 723 kW)).
The bombs were carried in two-section bomb bay in the fuselage (with space for 4 bombs) and 8 bomb bays in the central section of the wings (with space for 16 bombs). This arrangement of bomb bays imposed considerable restrictions on the types of bombs that could be carried, especially in the wing bays which were quite small as they had to fit between the ribs of the wing. The maximum load was 2,580 kg (2 × 300 kg and 18 × 110 kg). Apart from two 300 kg bombs in one of the fuselage bomb bays, it could not carry bombs larger than 110 kg. With maximum loadout, most of the weight of the bombs was carried inside the wings. There were no provisions for mounting bombs on the outside of the aircraft. During the Invasion of Poland in 1939, 110 kg was the maximum weight used, since the 300 kg bombs were only available in small quantities, and difficult to load at improvised airfields with little infrastructure. 50 kg bombs were also used. Maximal bomb load taken from soft surface runways was reduced to about 800–1200 kg.^[1]

Operational history

The Polish Air Force started to receive the Łos A in early 1938,^[4] with deliveries of the PZL.37B to operational units, slowed by delays in supply of the Pegasus XX engines and other equipment, in the autumn of 1938.^[5] On 1 September 1939, it had about 86 PZL.37s in total, but less than a half of those were used in combat. 36 PZL.37Bs were in four bomber escadres of a Bomber Brigade: the 11th, 12th, 16th and 17th escadres (two escadres with nine aircraft each, constituted a group, in Polish: dywizjon; the PZL.37 were in groups X and XV). The rest of the Bomber Brigade aircraft were PZL.23 Karaś. About 50 remaining PZL.37s were in the reserve XX group, training units or in repairs. Since only a few months were available to train the crews and complete the equipping of the bombers, the planes were not fully ready when the war broke out. For example, the extra internal fuel tanks were not in service, thus the maximum range of the bomber quoted in specifications was in practice not achievable.
Only the PZL.37s of the Bomber Brigade took part in combat. By 1 September, they had been deployed to rural improvised airfields, so they were not destroyed on the ground by the Germans in their initial attack on the main Polish airbases. However, because of this move away from developed airfields to short fields with poor surfaces, during the campaign the planes could take off with only a fraction of their maximum bomb load (typically 800 kg or 8 x 100 kg bombs), which limited their effectiveness. During the Invasion of Poland, from 4 September onward the planes of the Bomber Brigade were attacking German armoured columns in day attacks, forced by the desperate situation to perform this mission for which they were not designed (the original plans to bomb targets inside Germany were quickly abandoned). Most notably, they hampered the advance of the 16th Armoured Corps near Częstochowa and Radomsko. They suffered heavy losses due to lack of fighter protection, especially because they usually operated in units of no more than three aircraft at a time. The last combat flights took place on 16 September. During the campaign, the combat units were reinforced with several other aircraft, and about 46 PZL.37s were used in combat. Of Bomber Brigade, ten PZL.37s were shot down by fighters, five shot down by enemy anti-aircraft artillery, two bombed on the ground and a further ten lost in other ways. A number of not fully completed, training or reserve PZL.37s were also destroyed on airfields and in factories (18 PZL.37s were bombed in a reserve base in Małaszewicze and in a factory in Warsaw – Okęcie).
Twenty-six or twenty-seven PZL.37s (17 from the Bomber Brigade and ten training ones) were withdrawn in 1939 to Romania. In October 1940, they were seized by the Romanian government and 23 were next used by the Romanian air force in the 4th Group, consisting of the 76th and 77th bomber escadres. Some were uparmed with four machine guns (the Polish PWU machineguns were still used). About one third were lost in crashes due to lack of experience of Romanian pilots with the PZL.37's handling and its high wing loading, and due to engine faults. About 15 were used against the USSR from 22 June 1941. Among others, they first operated in Bessarabia, then they were bombing Kiev and Odessa. Some were lost, mostly due to anti-aircraft fire. Due to a lack of spare parts, the remaining planes were withdrawn from the front in October 1941 and used for training. In April 1944, the 76th escadrille returned to combat, with nine aircraft, but it was withdrawn from the front on 3 May 1944. After Romania joined the Allies, on 1 September 1944, German aircraft destroyed five PZL.37s on the ground.
Captured planes were also tested in Germany and the USSR. Not many PZL.37s fell into German hands (probably only two), because Polish workers scrapped about 30 PZL.37s remaining in factories in Okęcie and Mielec in October 1939, under the pretext of cleaning up the area, before the German authorities were able to reconnoiter.

Preserved parts and models of PZL.37 Łoś

There are no surviving PZL.37 aircraft. It is possible that at least some examples survived after 1945 in Romania, but there were no active efforts from the post-war Polish Communist government to locate these aircraft and have them returned to Poland.
An original PZL Pegaz 20 engine of the type used in PZL.37 Łoś is in the collection of the Polish Aviation Museum in Kraków. This engine was sent from Poland to the United States in the spring of 1939 to be exhibited at the 1939 New York World's Fair and thus survived the war, and was returned to Poland in 2006.^[6]
A full-scale non-flying model of PZL.37 Łoś is currently (early 2012) being assembled at PZL Mielec factory, in the factory hall used to construct these bombers before the war. The dimensions of the model will be determined only from photographs as very little of the original blueprints for the aircraft survive, nevertheless the model shape will match the original very closely. It is being constructed from aluminium and steel leftovers from aircraft under construction at the factory and scheduled to be ready by mid-2012.^[7]

A number of crash sites of PZL.37 Łoś shot down in September, 1939 have been identified and aircraft parts have been recovered from them. One crash site has a simple 1:1 model of the aircraft displayed as a monument.^[8] (photo)

Variants

PZL.37/I

First prototype with a single tail fin.

PZL.37/II

First prototype with a double tail fins and improvements.

PZL.37A

First 10 serial aircraft with single tail, Bristol Pegasus XIIB engines.

PZL.37Abis

Batch of 19 serial aircraft of A version with double tail fins.

PZL.37B version I and II

Main production variant with double tail fins and PZL Pegaz XX engines.

PZL.37C

Planned version with Gnome-Rhône 14N-01 engines.^[9]

PZL.37D

Planned version with Gnome-Rhône 14N-21 engines.^[9]

Operators

Map showing countries that used the PZL.37 (blue) and countries that ordered the plane but received no deliveries due to the outbreak of the war (light blue).

Wartime

 Poland

• Polish Air Force
  • Brygada Bombowa
    • X Dywizjon Bombowy
      • 211. Eskadra Bombowa
      • 212. Eskadra Bombowa
    • XV Dywizjon Bombowy
      • 216. Eskadra Bombowa
      • 217. Eskadra Bombowa

 Germany

• Luftwaffe operated two captured PZL.37s for testing purposes.

 Romania

• Royal Romanian Air Force
  • Grupul 4 Bombardament
    • Escadrila 76
    • Escadrila 77

 Soviet Union

• Soviet Air Force operated three captured PZL.37s for testing purposes.^[10]

Planned

 Belgium

• Belgian Air Force - Belgium bought a licence to build an unknown number in 1938, none could be built before the fall of Belgium in 1940.

 Bulgaria

• Bulgarian Air Force ordered 12 PZL.37Cs. The start of World War II did not allow them to be delivered.

 Greece

• Hellenic Air Force ordered 12 aircraft.

Spanish Republic

• Spanish Air Force^[11]

 Turkey

• Turkish Air Force ordered ten PZL.37Ds, materials for next 25 and license rights.

 Kingdom of Yugoslavia

• Yugoslav Royal Air Force ordered 20 PZL.37Cs.

Specifications (PZL.37B Łoś)

General characteristics

• Crew: 4
• Length: 12.92 m (42 ft 5 in)
• Wingspan: 17.93 m (58 ft 10 in)
• Height: 5.1 m (16 ft 9 in)
• Wing area: 53.5 m² (576 ft²)
• Empty weight: 4,280 kg (9,436 lb)
• Loaded weight: 8,865 kg with basic combat loading (19,526 lb)
• Max. takeoff weight: 9,105 kg (20,070 lb)
• Powerplant: 2 × Bristol Pegasus XX radial engines, 723 kW (970 hp) each

Performance

• Maximum speed: 412 km/h at 2,800 m with 1,995 kg bomb load (256 mph at 9200 ft with 4,397 lb bomb load)
• Range: 2,600 km (1,615 mi) with 1,760 kg bomb load and extra fuel tanks
• Combat radius: 1,000 km (620 mi)
• Service ceiling: 7,000 m (23,000 ft)
• Rate of climb: 4.7 m/s (925 ft/min)
• Wing loading: 166 kg/m² (34 lb/ft²)

Armament

• 3 x 7.92 mm observer's machine gun: 1 in the nose, 1 in the rear upper station, 1 in underbelly station
• Up to 2,580 kg (5,690 lb) of bombs (18 x 110 kg + 2 x 300 kg). Basic load 20 x 110 kg = 2,200 kg (4850 lb). Bomb load while operating from unprepared fields 880–1320 kg (1,940–2,910 lb) (8, 10 or 12 x 110 kg)

See also

Related development

• PZL.49 Miś

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration and era

• Dornier Do 17
• Handley Page Hampden
• Heinkel He 111
• Ilyushin Il-4
• Martin Maryland

Related lists

• List of aircraft of World War II

References

Notes

1. E.g. Cynk (1971, 1973, 1990, 2007)
2. Glass (2008), p.97
3. For the difficulties in achieving this in the first purposely designed airplane aiming at laminar flow, the P-51 Mustang, see [1]
4. Air International October 1988, p. 197.
5. Air International October 1988, pp. 216–217.
6. Serce "Łosia" wróciło do Polski - page from the Polish Aviation Museum website, includes galleries
7. Youtube video about model construction
8. Monument aircraft model in Dłutówek
9. Glass (2008), p.102
10. Glass (2008), p.100
11. Hawson (1999), p.113

Bibliography

• Cynk, Jerzy B. Polish Aircraft, 1893-1939. London: Putnam & Company Ltd., 1971. ISBN 0-370-00085-4.
• Cynk, Jerzy B. P.Z.L. P.37 Łoś (Aircraft in Profile number 258). Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1973.
• Cynk, Jerzy B. Samolot bombowy PZL P-37 Łoś (In Polish). Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwa Komunikacji i Łączności, 1990. ISBN 83-206-0836-8.
• Cynk, Jerzy B.; Bernad, D.; Braniewski; B.; Glass, A. and Kopański, T. PZL P.37 Łoś (In Polish with English summary). Gdansk, Poland: AJ-Press, 2007.
• Glass, Andrzej. Polskie Konstrukcje Lotnicze Vol.3 (In Polish). Sandomierz, Poland: Wydawnictwo Stratus, 2008.
• Hawson, Gerald, Arms for Spain. The Untold Story of the Spanish Civil War. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999.
• "The Elegant Elk...Poland's Unfortunate Bomber". Air International, October 1988, Vol 35 No 4. pp. 193–198, 216–218.

Cutty Sark

Cutty Sark is a British clipper ship. Built on the Clyde in 1869 for the Jock Willis Shipping Line, she was one of the last tea clippers to be built and one of the fastest, coming at the end of a long period of design development which halted as sailing ships gave way to steam propulsion.
The opening of the Suez Canal (also in 1869) meant that steam ships now enjoyed a much shorter route to China, so Cutty Sark spent only a few years on the tea trade before turning to the trade in wool from Australia, where she held the record time to Britain for ten years. Improvements in steam technology meant that gradually steamships also came to dominate the longer sailing route to Australia and the ship was sold to the Portuguese company Ferreira and Co. in 1895, and renamed Ferreira. She continued as a cargo ship until purchased by retired sea captain Wilfred Dowman in 1922, who used her as a training ship operating from Falmouth, Cornwall. After his death, Cutty Sark was transferred to the Thames Nautical Training College, Greenhithe in 1938 where she became an auxiliary cadet training ship alongside HMS Worcester. By 1954 she had ceased to be useful as a cadet ship and was transferred to permanent dry dock at Greenwich, London on public display.
Cutty Sark is one of three historic sea vessels in London on the Core Collection of the National Historic Ships Register (the nautical equivalent of a Grade 1 Listed Building) – the others are HMS Belfast and SS Robin. She is one of only three remaining original composite construction (wooden hull on an iron frame) clipper ships from the nineteenth century in part or whole, the others being the City of Adelaide, which arrived in Port Adelaide, South Australia on 3 February 2014 for preservation, and the beached skeleton of Ambassador of 1869 near Punta Arenas, Chile.

The ship was badly damaged by fire on 21 May 2007 while undergoing conservation. She has since been restored and reopened to the public on 25 April 2012.^[2]

Cutty Sark

Cutty Sark in February 2012 with repairs almost complete
Career (UK)
Name:	Cutty Sark (1869–1895)
Namesake:	Cutty-sark
Owner:	John "Jock" Willis (1869-1895)
Ordered:	1 February 1869
Builder:	Scott & Linton
Cost:	£16,500
Laid down:	1869
Launched:	22 November 1869
Sponsored by:	Mrs. George Moodie
In service:	16 February 1870
Homeport:	London (1870–1895) Falmouth (1923–38)
Identification:	UK Official Number: 63557[1]
Motto:	"Where there's a Willis away"
Fate:	Sold
Career (Portugal)
Name:	Ferreira
Namesake:	Joaquim Antunes Ferreira
Owner:	Joaquim Antunes Ferreira & Co. (1895-1922)
Acquired:	22 July 1895
Homeport:	Lisbon, Portugal
Nickname:	Pequena Camisola ("Little shirt")
Fate:	Sold 1922
Career (Portugal)
Name:	Maria do Amparo
Owner:	Companhia Nacional de Navegação
Acquired:	1922
Homeport:	Lisbon, Portugal
Fate:	Sold 1922
Career (UK)
Name:	Cutty Sark
Owner:	Wilfred Dowman
Acquired:	1922
Homeport:	Falmouth, Cornwall
Fate:	Sold 1938
Career (UK)
Name:	Cutty Sark
Owner:	Thames Nautical Training College
Acquired:	1938
Homeport:	Greenhithe, Kent
Fate:	Sold 1953
Career (UK)
Name:	Cutty Sark
Owner:	Cutty Sark Preservation Society
Acquired:	1953
Out of service:	December 1954
Status:	Museum ship
General characteristics
Class & type:	Clipper
Tonnage:	975 GRT[1]
Displacement:	2,100 tons (2,133.7 tonnes) at 20 ft (6.1 m) draught
Length:	Hull: 212 ft 5 in (64.74 m) LOA: 280 ft (85.34 m)
Beam:	36 ft (10.97 m)
Draught:	21 ft (6.4 m)
Propulsion:	32,000 sq ft sail (3000 hp)
Sail plan:	1870: ship rig 1916: barquentine rig
Speed:	17.15 kn (31.76 km/h)
Capacity:	1,700 tons (1542 tonnes)
Complement:	28–35

Construction

Cutty Sark with sails set. Photograph taken at sea by Captain Woodget with a camera balanced on two of the ship's boats lashed together.

Cutty Sark was ordered by shipping magnate John Willis, who operated a shipping company founded by his father. The company had a fleet of clippers and regularly took part in the tea trade from China to Britain. Speed was a clear advantage to a merchant ship, but it also created prestige for the owners: the 'tea race' was widely reported in contemporary newspapers and had become something of a national sporting event, with money being gambled against a winning ship. In earlier years, Willis had commanded his father's ships at a time when American-designed ships were the fastest in the tea trade, and then had owned British-designed ships, which were amongst the best available in the world but had never won the tea race. In 1868 the brand new Aberdeen-built clipper Thermopylae set a record time of 61 days port to port on her maiden voyage from London to Melbourne and it was this design that Willis set out to better.^[3][4]
It is uncertain how the hull shape for Cutty Sark was chosen. Willis chose Hercules Linton to design and build the ship but Willis already possessed another ship, The Tweed, which he considered to have exceptional performance. The Tweed (originally Punjaub) was a frigate designed by Oliver Lang based on the lines of an old French frigate, built in Bombay for the East India Company as a combination sail/paddle steamer. She and a sister ship were purchased by Willis, who promptly sold the second ship plus engines from The Tweed for more than he paid for both. The Tweed was then lengthened and operated as a fast sailing vessel, but was considered too big for the tea runs. Willis also commissioned two all-iron clippers with designs based upon The Tweed, Hallowe'en and Blackadder. Linton was taken to view The Tweed in dry dock.
Willis considered that The Tweed's bow shape was responsible for its notable performance, and this form seems to have been adopted for Cutty Sark. Linton, however, felt that the stern was too barrel-shaped and so gave Cutty Sark a squarer stern with less tumblehome. The broader stern increased the buoyancy of the ship's stern, making it lift more in heavy seas so it was less likely that waves would break over the stern, and over the helmsman at the wheel. The square bilge was carried forward through the centre of the ship.^[5][3] In the matter of masts Cutty Sark also followed the design of The Tweed, with similar good rake and with the foremast on both ships being placed further aft than was usual.^[6]
A contract for Cutty Sark's construction was signed on 1 February 1869 with the firm of Scott & Linton, which had only been formed in May 1868. Their shipyard was at Dumbarton on the River Leven on a site previously occupied by shipbuilders William Denny & Brothers. The contract required the ship to be completed within six months at a contracted price of £17 per ton and maximum weight of 950 tons. This was a highly competitive price for an experimental, state-of-the-art vessel, and for a customer requiring the highest standards. Payment would be made in seven installments as the ship progressed, but with a penalty of £5 for every day the ship was late. The ship was to be built to Lloyd's A1 standard and her construction was supervised on behalf of Willis by Captain George Moodie, who would command her when completed. Construction delays occurred when the Lloyd's inspectors required additional strengthening in the ship.^[7]
Work on the ship was suspended when Scott and Linton ran out of money to pay for further work. Rather than simply liquidate the company, an arrangement was made for Denny's to take over the contract and complete the ship, which was finally launched on 22 November 1869 by Captain Moodie's wife. The ship was moved to Denny's yard to have her masts fitted, and then on 20 December towed downriver to Greenock to have her running rigging installed. In the event, completing the ship meant the company's creditors were owed even more money than when work had first been halted.^[8]
Broadly, the parts of the ship visible above the waterline were constructed from East India teak, while American rock elm was used for the ship's bottom. The keel (16.5 in × 15 in (42 cm × 38 cm)) had on either side a garboard strake (11 in × 12 in (28 cm × 30 cm)) and then 6 in (15 cm) planking decreasing to 4.75 in (12.1 cm) at 1/5 the depth of the hold. Teak planking began at approximately the level of the bilge stringer. All the external timbers were secured by Muntz metal (brass) bolts to the internal iron frame and the hull covered by Muntz sheeting up to the 18 ft (5.5 m) depth mark. The stem (15 in × 15 in (38 cm × 38 cm)) and sternpost (16.5 in × 15 in (42 cm × 38 cm)) were of teak while the rudder was of English oak. The keel was replaced in the 1920s with one constructed from 15 in (38 cm) pitch pine.^[9] The deck was made of 3.5 in (8.9 cm) thick teak while the 'tween deck was 3 in (7.6 cm) yellow pine. Her length was 212 feet 5 inches (64.74 m) with a draft of 21 feet (6.40 m) and a deadweight of 921 tons.^[10]

Performance

A speck on the horizon

One day we sighted a vessel, a mere speck on the horizon, astern of us, and the way she came into view it was evident she was travelling much faster than ourselves. 'Bringing the wind up with her' was remarked on board, and that seemed the only feasible conclusion to arrive at and account for the manner in which she overhauled us. In a few hours she was alongside us, and proved to be the famous British clipper Cutty Sark, one of the fastest ships afloat. She passed us going two feet to our one, and in a short time was hull down ahead of us."

—Wool clipper crewman, 1879^[11]

The maximum logged speed for Cutty Sark was 17.5 knots (32.4 km/h; 20.1 mph). The speed of a sailing ship is not so straightforward as a steam ship, as winds vary and a ship must tack when sailing into the wind, both requiring the crew to make constant adjustments to sails, so her speed also depended greatly on the skill of her captain and crew. Her greatest recorded distance in 24 hours was 363 nautical miles (672 km; 418 mi) averaging 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph), although she recorded 2163 miles^{[clarification needed]} in six days, which given the weather over the whole period implied she had achieved over 370 nmi (690 km; 430 mi) some days.^[12] By comparison, Thermopylae's best recorded 24-hour distance was 358 nmi (663 km; 412 mi). Cutty Sark was considered to have the edge in a heavier wind, and Thermopylae in a lighter wind.^[13]

Etymology

The ship was named after Cutty-sark, the nickname of the witch Nannie Dee in Robert Burns' 1791 poem Tam o' Shanter. The ship's figurehead, the original carved by Robert Hellyer of Blackwall, is a stark white carving of a bare-breasted Nannie Dee with long black hair holding a grey horse's tail in her hand. In the poem she wore a linen sark (Scots: a short chemise or undergarment^[14]), that she had been given as a child, which explains why it was cutty, or in other words far too short. The erotic sight of her dancing in such a short undergarment caused Tam to cry out "Weel done, Cutty-sark", which subsequently became a well known catchphrase. Originally, carvings by Hellyer of the other scantily clad witches followed behind the figurehead along the bow, but these were removed by Willis in deference to 'good taste'. Tam o' Shanter riding Meg was to be seen along the ship's quarter. The motto, Where there's a Willis away, was inscribed along the taffrail.^[15] The Tweed, which acted as a model for much of the ship which followed her, had a figurehead depicting Tam o' Shanter.^[16]

History

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Cutty Sark in Sydney Harbour awaiting a cargo of new season's wool, c.1890

Cutty Sark was destined for the tea trade, then an intensely competitive race across the globe from China to London. Though the "premium" or bonus paid to the ship that arrived with the first tea of the year was abandoned after The Great Tea Race of 1866, faster ships could usually obtain a higher freight (the price paid to transport the cargo) than others.^[17] Her first round trip voyage under captain George Moodie began 16 February 1870 from London with a cargo of wine, spirits and beer bound for Shanghai. The return journey, carrying tea from Shanghai, began 25 June, arriving 13 October in London via the Cape of Good Hope.
Cutty Sark sailed in eight "tea seasons", from London to China and back.^[17]

Competition from steamers

Cutty Sark's launch coincided with the opening of the Suez Canal to shipping. Her first trip encountered significant competition with steamships. The route from China to London through the Suez Canal was shorter by 3,300 nmi (6,100 km; 3,800 mi).^[18] The route round Africa is in excess of 14,000 nmi (26,000 km; 16,000 mi) - typically a clipper might log significantly more than that by planning her route for favourable winds. Whilst it was possible for a sailing vessel to take a tug through the canal, this was difficult and expensive. Furthermore, sailing conditions in the northern Red Sea were unsuited to the design of a tea clipper.^[19] So they still had to sail around Africa.
Less obviously, steamship design had taken a quantum step forward in 1866 with Agamemnon, using higher boiler pressure and a compound engine, so obtaining a large improvement in fuel efficiency. Ships of this type could compete with clippers before the Suez Canal opened.^[19]
When the tea clippers arrived in China in 1870, they found a big increase in the number of steamers, which were in high demand. The rate of freight to London that was given to steamers was nearly twice that paid to the sailing ships. Additionally, the insurance premium for a cargo of tea in a steamer was substantially less than for a sailing vessel. So successful were the steamers using the Suez Canal that, in 1871, 45 were built in Clyde shipyards alone for Far Eastern trade.^[17]
The numbers of tea clippers sailing to China each year steadily reduced, with many ships being sold and moving to general cargo work. Costs were kept to a minimum and rigs were often reduced to barque so that a smaller crew was needed.

Thermopylae

Cutty Sark's famous race against Thermopylae occurred in 1872, the two ships leaving Shanghai together on 18 June. Two weeks later Cutty Sark had built up a lead of some 400 miles^{[clarification needed]}, but then lost her rudder in a heavy gale after passing through the Sunda Strait. John Willis' brother was on board the ship and ordered Moodie to put into Cape Town for repairs. Moodie refused, and instead the ship's carpenter Henry Henderson constructed a new rudder from spare timbers and iron. This took six days, working in gales and heavy seas which meant the men were tossed about as they worked and the brazier used to heat the metal for working was spilled out, burning the captain's son. The ship finally arrived in London on 18 October a week after Thermopylae, a total passage of 122 days. The captain and crew were commended for their performance and Henderson received a £50 bonus for his work. This was the closest Cutty Sark came to being first ship home but it was Moodie's last trip as her captain before he transferred to steamships. He was replaced by Captain F. W. Moore.

Later tea seasons

Moore remained captain only for one round trip to China, taking 117 days for the return trip. This was 14 days longer than Thermopylae and 27 days longer than achieved by the iron ship Hallowe'en a few months later. Captain W. E. Tiptaft assumed command in 1873 achieving 118 days on his first return trip, but after the ship had to travel 600 miles^{[clarification needed]} up the Yangtze River in search of a cargo. Steamships were now taking most of the tea. The following year the return journey took 122 days, but on the outward journey Cutty Sark set a record time of 73 days from London to Sydney. In November 1877 the ship was anchored off Deal in the English Channel along with sixty other vessels, waiting out a great storm. The anchor failed to hold and Cutty Sark was blown through the ships, damaging two others before grounding on a mud bank. Fortunately she was pulled clear by the tug Macgregor before too much damage was caused and she was towed to the Thames for repairs.
In December 1877 the ship sailed from London to Sydney, where she took on coal for Shanghai, arriving there in April. However, the ship was unable to find any cargo of tea for a return trip to London—the days of the tea race were over. The master, Captain Tiptaft, died in October while still in Shanghai and was replaced by the first mate, James Wallace. The ship now had to take different cargoes around the world, including coal, jute, castor oil and tea to Australia.
In 1880 an incident occurred on board during which the First Mate Sidney Smith killed seaman John Francis. Smith was allowed to leave the ship at Anjer by Captain Wallace, causing the crew to cease work in protest. Wallace continued the voyage with six apprentices and four tradesmen but became becalmed in the Java Sea for three days. In desperation as matters moved from bad to worse, he committed suicide by jumping overboard and disappeared. He was replaced as Master by William Bruce, who proved to be a drunken incompetent who claimed pay for non-existent crewmen and managed to set sail with inadequate provisions, resulting in the crew starving. An inquiry in New York in April 1882 resulted in the captain and mate being suspended and replaced by Captain Moore, previously of Blackadder.

The wool trade

Cutty Sark moored in Melbourne. Another clipper can be seen in the background

In December 1883, Cutty Sark departed Newcastle, New South Wales with 4,289 bales of wool and 12 casks of tallow, arriving in London in just 83 days. This was 25 days faster than her nearest rival that year and heralded the start of a new career taking Australian wool to Britain in time for the January wool sales. In 1885 Richard Woodget was appointed captain on a salary of £186 per year and continued to improve on the fastest trip record, achieving 77 days on his first outward trip and 73 days returning to Britain from Australia. He achieved this by taking a more southerly route than previously, to catch the strongest winds in the Roaring Forties despite having to face icebergs, gales and storms whipped up by the winds he sought. Cutty Sark was the fastest ship on the wool trade for ten years. In July 1889 the log of the modern passenger steam ship SS Britannia recorded that when steaming at 15-16 knots she was overtaken in the night by a sailing ship doing 17 knots, which proved to be Cutty Sark.^{[citation needed]}

Ship's stern before renovation in 1994. The original dock arrangement can also be seen.

Eventually steamships began to dominate the wool trade too and it ceased to be profitable for a sailing ship. In 1895 Jock Willis sold Cutty Sark to the Portuguese firm Joaquim Antunes Ferreira for £1,250.^[21] She was renamed Ferreira after the firm.^[21] Her crews referred to her as Pequena Camisola ("little shirt", a straight translation of the Scots 'cutty sark').^[22] The ship traded various cargoes between Portugal, Rio de Janeiro, New Orleans, Mozambique, Angola, and Britain. In May 1916 she was dismasted off the Cape of Good Hope because of the rolling of the ship in bad weather and had to be towed into Table Bay off Cape Town. Because of World War I, it was impossible to obtain suitable materials to replace the masts so she was re-rigged over 18 months to a barquentine sail arrangement.
In 1922 Ferreira was the last clipper operating anywhere in the world. Caught in a storm in the English Channel she put into Falmouth harbour where she was spotted by retired windjammer captain Wilfred Dowman, of Trevissome House, Flushing, Cornwall, who was then operating the training ship Lady of Avenel. The ship returned to Lisbon, where she was sold to new owners and renamed Maria do Amparo. However, Dowman persevered in his determination to buy the ship, which he did for £3,750 and she was returned to Falmouth harbour. The rigging was restored to an approximation of the original arrangement and the ship was used as a cadet training ship. As a historic survivor, the ship was opened to the public and visitors would be rowed out to inspect her. Dowman died in 1936 and the ship was sold to the Incorporated Thames Nautical Training College, HMS Worcester at Greenhithe, leaving Falmouth for her last journey under sail in 1938. The ship was crewed by cadets, 15-year-old Robert Wyld steering the ship during the voyage.^[23] Ian Bryce, DSC, the last surviving crew member on the historic journey from Falmouth to the Thames died, aged 89, on 11 December 2011.^[24]

The ship's figurehead shows Cutty-sark, the nickname of the witch Nannie Dee who chases Tam o' Shanter, snatching his horse's tail before he escapes by crossing water

At Greenhithe Cutty Sark acted as an auxiliary vessel to HMS Worcester for sail training drill, but by 1950 she had become surplus to requirements. From February to October 1951 she was temporarily moved first for a refit and then to take part in the Festival of Britain at Deptford. On 30 January 1952, the 800-ton tanker MV Aqueity collided with Cutty Sark's bow in the Thames. The two ships were locked together after the collision which forced Cutty Sark's jib boom into Worcester's fo'cs'le rails, snapping the boom before scraping along Worcester's starboard side. Cutty Sark's figurehead lost an arm in the process. Cutty Sark was anchored and towed to the Shadwell Basin where repairs were carried out by Green & Silley Weir Ltd. The damaged arm was recovered at Grays Thurrock and the figurehead was repaired.^[25]
In 1954 she was moved to a custom-built dry-dock at Greenwich.^[26] She was stripped of upper masts, yards, deck-houses and ballast to lighten her before being towed from East India Import Dock to the special dry dock at Greenwich. The skipper on this occasion was 83-year-old Captain C.E. Irving, who had sailed the world three times in her before he was 17. The river pilot was Ernest Coe. Thereafter the entrance tunnel to the dry dock was filled in, the river wall rebuilt and the work of re-rigging began. The foundation stone of the dry dock was laid by The Duke of Edinburgh, patron of the Cutty Sark Preservation Society, in June 1953. The restoration, re-rigging and preparation for public exhibition was estimated to cost £250,000.^[27]

Cutty Sark, 8 October 1987

Cutty Sark whisky derives its name from the ship. An image of the clipper appears on the label, and the maker formerly sponsored the Cutty Sark Tall Ships' Race. The ship also inspired the name of the Saunders Roe Cutty Sark flying boat.

Museum ship

Cutty Sark in Greenwich, October 2003

Cutty Sark was preserved as a museum ship, and has since become a popular tourist attraction, and part of the National Historic Fleet, Core Collection. She is located near the centre of Greenwich, in south-east London, close aboard the National Maritime Museum, the former Greenwich Hospital, and Greenwich Park. She is also a prominent landmark on the route of the London Marathon. She usually flies signal flags from her ensign halyard reading "JKWS", which is the code representing Cutty Sark in the International Code of Signals, introduced in 1857.
The ship is in the care of the Cutty Sark Trust, whose president, the Duke of Edinburgh, was instrumental in ensuring her preservation, when he set up the Cutty Sark Society in 1951. The Trust replaced the Society in 2000.^[26][28] She is a Grade I listed monument and is on the Buildings At Risk Register. The gallery beneath the ship holds the world's largest collection of ships' figureheads, donated to the Society by Sydney Cumbers in 1953.^[29]
Cutty Sark station on the Docklands Light Railway is one minute's walk away, with connections to central London and the London Underground. Greenwich Pier is next to the ship, and is served by scheduled river boats from piers in central London. A tourist information office stands to the east of the ship.

Cutty Sark in Greenwich, 1977

Conservation and fire

The ship one week before the fire. Most of the upper sections had already been dismantled for renovation.

Cutty Sark on fire

On the morning of 21 May 2007, Cutty Sark, which had been closed and partly dismantled for conservation work, caught fire, and burned for several hours before the London Fire Brigade could bring the fire under control. Initial reports indicated that the damage was extensive, with most of the wooden structure in the centre having been lost.^[30]
In an interview the next day, Richard Doughty, the chief executive of the Cutty Sark Trust, revealed that at least half of the "fabric" (timbers, etc.) of the ship had not been on site as it had been removed during the preservation work. Doughty stated that the trust was most worried about the state of iron framework to which the fabric was attached.^[30] He did not know how much more the ship would cost to restore, but estimated it at an additional £5–10 million, bringing the total cost of the ship's restoration to £30–35 million.^[31]
After initial analysis of the CCTV footage of the area suggested the possibility of arson, further investigation over the following days by the Metropolitan Police failed to find conclusive proof that the fire was set deliberately.^[32]

Damage

The day after the fire, 21 May 2007

Aerial video footage showed extensive damage, but seemed to indicate that the ship had not been destroyed in its entirety. A fire officer present at the scene said in a BBC interview that when they arrived, there had been "a well-developed fire throughout the ship". The bow section looked to be relatively unscathed and the stern also appeared to have survived without major damage. The fire seemed to have been concentrated in the centre of the ship. The chairman of Cutty Sark Enterprises said after inspecting the site: "The decks are unsalvageable but around 50% of the planking had already been removed; however, the damage is not as bad as originally expected."^{[citation needed]}
As part of the restoration work planned before the fire, it was proposed that the ship be raised three metres, to allow the construction of a state of the art museum space beneath. This would allow visitors to view her from below.^[33]
There was criticism of the policies of the Cutty Sark Trust and its stance that the most important thing was to preserve as much as possible of the original fabric. Proponents of making her fit to go to sea advocated that the fire repairs be done in such a manner to enable her to do so.^[34] However, the state of the timbers, especially the keel,^[35] and the fact that a hole had been cut through the hull in the 1950s for an access door, made this difficult. Also, the Cutty Sark Trust claimed that under five percent of the original fabric was lost in the fire, as the decks which were destroyed were additions not present at the original building. The restoration work was criticised by The Victorian Society saying that the needs of the corporate hospitality market were put ahead of the preservation of the historic fabric of the ship.^[36] Building Design magazine awarded the project its Carbuncle Cup for the worst new building completed in 2012 saying 'The scheme's myriad failings stem from one calamitous choice: the decision to hoick the 154-year-old clipper close to three metres into the air on canted steel props.'^[37]

Fund-raising

In addition to explaining how and why the ship is being saved, the exhibition features a new film presentation, a re-creation of the master's saloon, and interactive exhibits about the project.

Cutty Sark during repairs after the fire

The design for the renovation project by Grimshaw architects with, during design development stage, newly established Youmeheshe architects and Buro Happold engineers involved raising the ship out of her dry berth using a Kevlar web, allowing visitors to pass under the hull to view it. Unfortunately it was discovered that the proposed web would not follow the reverse curves of the ship's hull which would effectively mask the hull's shape from view. An alternate design for the support of the ship had to be developed; this involved installing a deep steel belt around the hull tied by diagonal steel members passing through the hold to a new steel-reinforced keel. Horizontal tubular steel struts passing through the hold brace the diagonals apart while many of the corroded original hull frames have been doubled.
A new steelwork lower deck of contemporary design incorporating an amphitheatre feature was installed in the main hold while a glass encased lift installed within the ship terminates in a new steel and glass housing structure on the weather deck. A second new steel and glass box has been installed above the fore hold to enclose a new staircase. Access to the ship is through a new opening cut through the hull below the waterline in the ship's starboard quarter. The new access hole has required the addition of new steel framing. Visitors arriving on board the ship now do so via this entrance, which leads to the lower hold. Maldwin Drummond, Chairman of the Cutty Sark Trust, has explained in Classic Boat magazine's September 2010 issue the need to retain the spirit of the ship and he quotes the ideal that "The visitor should see the ship as though for some unexplained reason the crew had gone ashore". Doubts over the wisdom of Grimshaw's proposals have been raised by many ship conservationists including the Cutty Sark Trust's own engineer Peter Mason.^[38]

Cutty Sark in February 2012, repairs nearing completion. The temporary cover which surrounded the ship during repair has been removed although workmen can still be seen on deck and in the rigging where not all yards have been replaced. Work was underway around the dock to lay new paving.

The project was costed at £25 million when it commenced in 2006 with £11.75 million of this total being provided by a grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund.^[39]
Oscar-winning film producer Jerry Bruckheimer aided in the repair and restoration of Cutty Sark. A collection of photos taken by Bruckheimer went on display in London in November 2007 to help raise money for the Cutty Sark Conservation Project. The exhibition featured more than thirty pictures taken on set during the filming of Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End.^[40]
In January 2008, the Heritage Lottery Fund awarded the Cutty Sark Trust another £10 million towards the restoration of the ship, meaning that the Trust had now achieved £30 million of the £35 million needed for the completion of the project.^{[citation needed]}
In June 2008, Israeli shipping magnate Sammy Ofer donated the outstanding £3.3 million needed to fully restore the ship^[41] although by January 2009 the Evening Standard reported that the cost had risen further to £40 million creating a new shortfall.^[42] In February 2010 The Daily Telegraph reported the project cost had risen to £46 million with public money now being made available by London Borough of Greenwich to fill the funding gap.^[43]

Investigation conclusion

On 30 September 2008, the London Fire Brigade announced the conclusion of the investigation into the fire at a press conference at New Scotland Yard. The painstaking investigation was conducted by the Fire Brigade, along with London's Metropolitan Police Service, Forensic Science Services, and electrical examination experts Dr. Burgoyne's & Partners. They said that the most likely cause was the failure of an industrial vacuum cleaner that may have been left switched on over the weekend before the fire started. The report revealed no evidence the ship was subjected to arson attack and concluded the fire started accidentally.^[44]
Physical evidence and CCTV footage of the fire showed that it probably started towards the stern of the ship on the lower deck. All electrical equipment on board was examined and it was determined that an industrial vacuum cleaner in this area was normally running continuously to suck up dust and particles from work going on to break up concrete within the ship. No one working on the ship had responsibility to ensure all equipment was turned off at the end of each day, and no one recalled switching off the equipment on the Friday in question. The vacuum cleaner has three motors inside and after the fire one was found to be burned out in a manner which suggested it had failed while operating. This was not conclusive evidence, however, because the motor might previously have failed in service without causing a fire, and gone unnoticed because the other two motors had continued to function. Tests on similar cleaners showed they had no thermal cutout devices and while they could run safely indefinitely if filters inside were clear, if the air flow through the cleaner was blocked then it would eventually overheat and could catch fire. This might occur if the cleaner was full of dust and debris. The cleaner had failed previously and two motors had been replaced.

Bow

On the basis of witness evidence, the joint investigation team considered it unlikely that the fire was caused by the hot work (welding) that was being carried out as part of the renovation or by carelessly discarded smokers' materials. No one visited this part of the ship since work stopped on Friday evening, and it was considered unlikely that a fire could have smouldered all weekend before finally breaking out Monday morning. However, it was discovered that although all hot work was supposed to be recorded and someone was supposed to check afterwards to ensure no fires, there was no record that such checks had ever been made, and on at least one occasion hot work had been conducted with no records made.
The ship was patrolled by two security guards, both of whom were supposed to patrol independently at least once an hour, or once every two hours later in the night, one being primarily responsible for the visitor pavilion and one the dock. The guards were required to keep a log of their patrols, but after the fire the relevant page was found to be missing from the book. It was later found, already filled in reporting uneventful patrols of the site up to 7 am in the morning when the guards would have gone off duty. The alarm was raised when one of the guards called the fire brigade; before this the two reported that they had smelled burning plastic and had been investigating to try to determine its source.
A carpenter had visited the site on Sunday to collect some tools, but after 20 minutes attempting to contact a security guard to let him in, had climbed the fence, collected his tools and climbed out again. The carpenter reported that he had heard machinery operating towards the stern of the ship, but it was not clear whether this might have been the site diesel generator which ran at all times.
The ship was fitted with a temporary fire alarm system but it was unclear whether this had operated. A separate alarm within the pavilion did sound when smoke and heat reached that area, but the guards reported no ringing alarm before the fire was seen. Investigation afterwards discovered a faulty relay in the alarm panel which failed to switch power to the siren circuits when an alarm was triggered. However, the panel also contained a failed fuse in one siren circuit which suggested that the siren had activated but the fire shorted it out, and this might have also caused the relay to fail. The failed relay would have shut off power to the second siren circuit. Statements from workers suggested that weekly tests of the alarm system had not been carried out.

Mast specifications

The original mast specifications as laid down by the ships designer still exist and are listed below as "tea rig". This arrangement was used during the ship's time on the tea trade route, where it was necessary to maximise the area of sail to get the greatest possible propulsion when the ship might be becalmed in the doldrums. For the route to Australia it was not necessary to carry such a large area of sail and the masts and yards were reduced. The trade winds required great strength in masts, but the wind could best be captured by relatively small, high sails. A smaller rig also represented a saving in maintenance costs. Each of the three masts (fore, main and mizzen) is in three overlapping sections.

The restored stern (with stern draft and rudder) elevated 3 metres above its dry-dock under its glass-roofed visitors' centre in June 2012.

Mast heights above deck in metres

	Tea rig[45]	Sydney[46]
Foretop	18.8	16.5
Topgallant	29.8	24.3
Royal	39.6	35.4
Maintop	19.8	16.9
Topgallant	31.9	22.8
Royal		36.3
Skysail	44.5
Mizzentop	17.0	14.8
Topgallant	25.7	22.8
Royal	33.2	31.7

Yard lengths in metres

	Tea rig	Sydney
Fore course	23.8	21.0
Lowertopsail	20.7	16.8
Uppertopsail	19.5	14.6
Topgallant	14.6	11.5
Royal	11.6	9.4
Main course	23.8	21.6
Lowertopsail	20.7	18.5
Uppertopsail	19.5	16.8
Topgallant	14.6	14.2
Royal	11.6	10.4
Skysail	10.4
Mizzen course	18.3	17.4
Lowertopsail	16.5	14.9
Uppertopsail	14.6	13.4
Topgallant	11.9	11.0
Royal	10.1	8.2
Spanker	15.8	14.1

See also

• William Pile
• Cutty Sark (short story)
• Falls of Clyde (ship)
• List of clipper ships
• List of large sailing vessels
• List of tall ships
• Star of India

References

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2. "Cutty Sark: Queen reopens Greenwich tea clipper". BBC News. 25 April 2012.
3. Lubbock, pp. 20–21^{[clarification needed]}
4. Dear, I.C.B; Kemp, Peter, eds. (2005). Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860616-1.
5. Villiers p. 17–19
6. Lubbock, China Clippers, p. 291
7. Brettle
8. Mitchell, W H; Sawyer, L A (1995). The Empire Ships. London: Lloyd's of London Press Ltd. p. 49. ISBN 1-85044-275-4.
9. Platt, Alan; Waite, Simon T.; Sexton, Robert T. (February 2009). "The Cutty Sark Second Keel and History as the Ferreira". The Mariner's Mirror (United Kingdom: The Society for Nautical Research) 95 (1): 8–10. doi:10.1080/00253359.2009.10657081. (subscription required (help)).
10. "Jock Willis' Specification for the Cutty Sark". John Sankey.)
11. Lubbock, China Clippers, pp. 295–296, account of a fast wool clipper crewman
12. Lubbock, Cutty Sark, p. 9
13. Lubbock, China Clippers, pp. 155–157
14. "Cutty, Cuttie". Dictionary of the Scots Language. at 4. Retrieved 21 May 2007. "(8) cutty(-ie) sark, a short chemise or undergarment"
15. Lubbock, pp. 32–34^{[clarification needed]}
16. Lubbock, Blackwall Frigates, p. 229
17. MacGregor, David R. (1983). The Tea Clippers, Their History and Development 1833-1875. Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0 85177 256 0.
18. "Title unknown". Suex Canal Authority.^{[not in citation given]}
19. Jarvis, Adrian (1993). "Chapter 9: Alfred Holt and the Compound Engine". In Gardiner, Robert; Greenhill, Basil. The Advent of Steam - The Merchant Steamship before 1900. Conway Maritime Press. pp. 158–159. ISBN 0-85177-563-2.
20. Lubbock, p. 9^{[clarification needed]}, correspondence with an unnamed master mariner
21. Platt, Alan; Waite, Simon T.; Sexton, Robert T. (February 2009). "The Cutty Sark's Second Keel and History as the Ferreira". The Mariner's Mirror (Portsmouth, United Kingdom: The Society for Nautical Research) 95 (1): 13.
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23. Wyld, Robert (28 May 2007). "Cutty Sark must Sail Again" (pdf). The Daily Mirror – via Hands on Illustrations.
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26. BBC Radio 4 News, 6pm, 22 May 2007
27. Male, David. "Greenwich-Day-by-Day-December". Greenwich Guide. Retrieved 13 December 2011.
28. Camber, Rebecca (23 May 2007). "The £13 doubt over Cutty Sark Sprinklers". The Daily Mail.
29. "Figureheads". Royal Museums Greenwich. Retrieved 20 May 2012.
30. "Blaze ravages historic Cutty Sark". BBC News. 21 May 2007.
31. Iggulden, Amy; Beckford, Martin (22 May 2007). "Police launch Cutty Sark arson investigation". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2007-05-26.
32. "Cutty Sark fire remains a mystery". BBC News. 23 May 2007.
33. "The Future". Cutty Sark. Archived from the original on 2009-07-24.
34. "BYM News May Cutty Sark". BYM News & Magazine. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
35. Davies, Wyn. "The Cutty Sark, The Trials and Tribulations of a Restoration Project". Historic Naval Ships Association.
36. "Cutty Sark refit 'damaging', says The Victorian Society". BBC News. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
37. "Carbuncle Cup winner 2012: Ship in a throttle". Building Design. Retrieved 2012-09-26.
38. Gilligan, Andrew (6 February 2010). "Cutty Sark restoration turning into a fiasco". The Daily Telegraph.
39. "Press & Publicity > 23 Sept 06 Heritage Lottery Fund backs Cutty Sark scheme with an £11.75m grant". Cutty Sark. Archived from the original on 2009-07-24. Retrieved 2011-01-05.
40. "Press & Publicity > 23 Nov 07 Cutty Sark's Hollywood photo exhibition". Cutty Sark. Archived from the original on 2009-07-24. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
41. Sears, Neil (24 June 2008). "Shipping billionaire makes £3.3m donation to restore fire-damaged Cutty Sark". The Daily Mail. Retrieved 2010-04-16.
42. Mendick, Robert (9 January 2009). "Cost of Saving Cutty Sark soars to £40m as rust eats into hull". Evening Standard.
43. Blake, Heidi (5 February 2010). "Cutty Sark to be restored in time for London 2012 Olympics after devastating blaze". The Daily Telegraph.
44. London Fire Brigade; Metropolitan Police Service (29 September 2008). "Report on the investigation into the fire on board the clipper ship Cutty Sark, King William Walk, Greenwich, London SE10 on Monday 21st May 2007" (pdf). Retrieved 2010-04-16.
45. Lubbock, Basil. "Appendix III". The Log of the Cutty Sark.
46. Sankey, J. "The Ship Cutty Sark". John Sankey.